The European Journal of Public Health Advance Access originally published online on February 1, 2008
The European Journal of Public Health 2008 18(3):224-231; doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckm128
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Work and Health |
Risk factors for disability pension in a population-based cohort of men and women on long-term sick leave in Sweden
Nadine E. Karlsson1, John M. Carstensen1, Sturla Gjesdal2,3 and Kristina A. E. Alexanderson3
1 Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
2 Section of Social Medicine, Department of Public Health and Primary Health Care, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
3 Section of Personal Injury Prevention, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
Correspondence: Nadine Karlsson, Division of Social Medicine and Public Health Science, Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linköping University, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden. tel: +46 13 222381, fax: +46 13 221865, e-mail: nadine.karlsson{at}ihs.liu.se
Received February 9, 2007, accepted December 14, 2007
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Abstract |
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Background: Knowledge on predictors of disability pension is very limited. The aim was to assess the importance of sick-leave diagnosis and socio-demographic variables as risk factors for disability pension among individuals on long-term sickness absence and to compare these factors by gender and over time. Methods: A prospective population-based cohort study in Östergötland County, Sweden, included 19 379 individuals who, in 1985–87, were aged 16–60 years and had a new spell of long-term sickness absence lasting
56 days. Follow-up was done in two time frames: 0–5 and 6–10 years after inclusion. The risk of disability pension in relation to sick-leave diagnosis and socio-demographic factors was assessed by Cox proportional hazard regression analysis. Results: In 5 years, after inclusion, 28% of the cohort had been granted disability pension. Those with higher age, low income, previous sick leave, no employment and non-Swedish origin had higher risk of disability pension, while those with young children had lower risk. Considering the inclusion diagnosis, the pattern differed between men and women (P < 0.001). Among men, those with mental disorders had the highest risk and among women those with musculoskeletal disorders. Except for income, the effect of which was reversed over time, the overall pattern of disability pension predictors remained 6–10 years after inclusion but was attenuated. Conclusion: Besides socio-demographic risk factors, the sick-leave diagnoses constitute an important both medium and long-term predictor of disability pension among both men and women on long-term sickness absence.
Keywords: diagnoses, disability pension, risk factors, sick-leave, sickness absence
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Introduction |
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The incidence of long-term sickness absence (LTSA) and disability pension (DP) has increased over the last decade in Sweden, as well as in other Western countries,1–3 and the decision to grant DP is often made after LTSA.4–8 Besides being a major public health problem and economic challenge for the welfare state, DP has large social and economic consequences for individuals. Disability pensioners often report lower levels of quality of life or psychological well-being compared to other groups of retirees,9 although some do feel that receiving DP improved their quality of life.10
Due to the magnitude of DP after LTSA, more knowledge is needed about risk factors for DP among persons with different sick-leave diagnoses in order to initiate effective interventions. In most countries, musculoskeletal and psychiatric disorders are the two diagnostic groups that most often legitimate LTSA and DP.1,5,11 According to the law in Sweden, all residents aged 16–64 years can be granted a disability pension on the condition that their ability to carry out gainful employment has been decreased as a result of mental or physical incapacity. Several factors might influence the disability pension decision, amongst others: disease features, job features, interaction between these two, social position, social welfare features and personal characteristics. Previous studies on the risk for future DP among individuals on LTSA are very few and have generally lacked information on the diagnosis justifying the LTSA. However, diagnosis, the actual health problem, is probably an important prognostic factor, along with socio-demographic risk factors such as age, gender and income.1,12 So far, there are few such studies, due to the lack of large prognostic datasets including information about sick-leave diagnoses.1 To our knowledge, only two studies, both conducted in Norway, have examined the risk of DP associated with LTSA by using data on the diagnosis for sick leave as an independent variable. The first of these was performed in 1990–95 and used a representative sample comprising 10% of the Norwegian working population,13 and the second was carried out in 1994–99 and included population-based data from a large Norwegian county.4 Both defined LTSA as a sick-leave spell longer than 56 days. In these two investigations, the age-standardized risk of DP was found to vary greatly between people with different sick-leave diagnoses.
The aim of the present study was to assess the importance of the sick-leave diagnosis and socio-demographic variables as risk factors for DP among individuals on LTSA in Sweden, and to compare these risk factors in relation to gender and over time.
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Study population
The setting was the Östergötland County in Sweden, which had 392 887 inhabitants in 1984, constituting 5% of the national population. This county is the location of two of the largest Swedish cities and also includes large rural areas. The individuals of interest for the present study were identified in a research register as all the people in Östergötland County who had a new sick-leave spell exceeding 56 days in 1985, 1986 or 1987.14–16
A total of 19 379 individuals (57% women) were included because they met the following criteria:
- Lived in Östergötland County in December 1984.17,18
- Had a new sick-leave spell exceeding 8 weeks ( 56 days) in 1985–87.
- Were 16–60 years of age at inclusion.
Measures
Based on information from the sick-leave register,14–16 at inclusion the variables were constructed as follows:
- Age: 16–29, 30–39, 40–49 and 50–59 years.
- Mean number of sick-leave days per year in the 3 years prior to inclusion:
7, 7–28, 29–90, > 90.
- Diagnosis of the sick-leave spell at inclusion: coded according to the 18 categories of the ICD8.19
- Income from work per year in SEK [1 USD = 8.24 Swedish kronor (SEK) in 1984]: 50 000, 50 000–100 000, >100 000.20
- Marital status: single (never married), married, divorced/widowed.
- Country of birth: Sweden, other.
- Employment status: employed versus not gainfully employed (unemployed, housewife, student, living on welfare benefits).
- Number of children under 10 years of age: 0, 1, 2.
Data up to 1996 were also obtained on the following aspects for all those included:
- Date of being granted a DP and date of old age retirement (from the National Social Insurance Board).
- Date of death (from the National Board of Health and Welfare).
Statistical methods
The inclusion date was defined as the date when an individual reached Day 56 (8 weeks) of the period of LTSA that was used to approve inclusion. The study outcome was time to DP. Individuals were followed up to DP, old age retirement (or a maximum of 65 years, which is the legal age of retirement in Sweden), death, or the end of the follow up period (maximum 10 years from inclusion or 31 December 1996).
The crude cumulative probabilities of being granted a DP were estimated using life tables. Multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression analysis was performed to simultaneously assess the risk of DP in relation to age, sex, marital status, number of young children, employment status, country of birth, income, previous mean sick-leave days per year and sick-leave diagnosis at the time of inclusion.21 Musculoskeletal diagnoses constituted the reference group, since they represent the most common diagnosis for LTSA in Sweden.1,11 The Cox regressions were performed separately for two different time periods: 0–5 and 6–10 years after inclusion. Interactions between gender and the predictor variables were tested by the Cox regression analysis using the likelihood ratio test. Cox regression models were then calculated separately for men and women. Multivariate adjusted hazard ratios (HR) of being granted a DP were estimated with 95% confidence intervals (CI). A level of 5% was considered to be statistically significant.
Sickness insurance in Sweden
For the years studied (1985–96), in Sweden, all persons aged 16–64 years (even those who were not employed) were covered by the national sickness insurance, which entitled them to sickness benefits when their work capacity was reduced due to disease or injury. If this work incapacity was long-lasting or permanent the person could be granted DP (incapacity benefit in the UK, social security disability insurance in the US). To receive sickness allowance, a person must have been employed or self-employed with a minimum annual income from work of 6000 SEK. A full DP represented at least 65% of previous income. There was no limit to the duration of a sick-leave spell, which means that it was possible to be on sick leave for several years before being granted a DP. There is no general consensus as to how ‘long-term sickness absence’ is defined. Indeed, periods of >3 days, >7 days, 28 days and >10 weeks have all been classified as prolonged sickness absence. In this study, the definition is set as spells lasting at least 56 days.4,22
Disability pension could be granted temporarily or permanently up to old-age retirement, and could be given as full-time (1/1) or part-time (1/2 or 2/3). A temporary disability pension was granted if a person's working capacity was judged to be reduced for a considerable time, but not permanently; such a pension was generally reviewed every year. In practice, it was unusual for a person with a temporary disability pension to return to work. In this study, the term disability pension refers to all of the mentioned types of benefits.
Ethical aspects
The study was approved by the Swedish National Data Inspection Board and the Local Committee for Research Ethics.
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Results |
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Table 1 shows the background characteristics of members of the LTSA cohort at the time of the sick-leave spell that led to inclusion. Compared to the women, more men were older, had higher incomes, had not married and had fewer children <10 years of age at inclusion. There were no gender-related differences in the distribution of employment status, previous sick-leave history or country of birth.
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Sick-leave diagnoses at inclusion
The distribution of the LTSA diagnoses for the individuals included in the cohort is shown in table 1. Most of the diagnoses were in the category musculoskeletal disorders (44.2% of the women, 36.5% of the men), followed by injury (10.1% of the women, 20% of the men) and mental disorders (9.8% of the women, 11.6% of the men).
Disability pension
Among the 19 379 individuals in the cohort (8283 men; 11 096 women), 2236 (27%) men and 3056 (28%) women were granted a DP within 5 years of inclusion. Five years after inclusion, a total of 13 540 (5736 men; 7804 women) remained at risk for DP (69% of the men and 70% of the women), and 1056 (18%) men and 1516 (19%) women received a DP during the next 5 years.
Risk factors for DP 0–5 years after inclusion
An overall test for interaction between risk factors for DP and gender was performed, and the result was highly significant (P < 0.001). Accordingly, all subsequent multivariate analyses were stratified by gender (table 2).
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For both men and women, the risk of DP increased with higher age, lower income, more previous sick-leave days per year, not having children <10 years of age, lacking employment and being born in a country other than Sweden. The magnitude of the risk gradients differed between the genders, and steeper gradients were seen for men in relation to the effects of age, income and employment status, and for women with regard to previous sick leave. Marital status had no statistically significant impact on risk of DP.
Considering the sick-leave diagnosis at inclusion as a risk factor for DP, we found that the patterns differed between men and women (figure 1).
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For the men, a mental diagnosis implied a significantly higher risk of DP compared to a musculoskeletal diagnosis (HR 1.2; CI 1.1–1.4), whereas the opposite was seen for women (HR 0.8; CI 0.7–0.9). The hazard ratios for DP in relation to endocrine, respiratory and urinary diagnoses were significantly higher for men than for women. Furthermore, of all the conditions diagnosed in the women, musculoskeletal disorders were associated with the worse prognosis. Among women, those with a pregnancy-related diagnosis had the lowest risk of DP (HR 0.1; CI 0.1–0.2). For both genders, the risk was low among individuals on LTSA due to an injury.
Risk factors for DP 6–10 years after inclusion
A test for interaction between risk factors for DP and gender was performed and the result was highly significant (P < 0.001). Therefore, all subsequent multivariate analyses were stratified by gender (table 3).
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With the exception of income, the overall pattern of predictors for DP 6–10 years after inclusion remained, although the risk gradients for several risk factors tended to be weaker. However, the effect of income at baseline was reversed, that is, there was a statistically significant increase in the risk of DP for both women and men with higher income (in the bracket 50 000–100 000 SEK per year for both genders, and in the group >100 000 SEK for women).
The gender differences in ranking of sick-leave diagnoses for risk of DP in relation to musculoskeletal diagnoses were still observed, but the dissimilarities between diagnoses in this context were decreased during the second period of observation (6–10 years after inclusion) as compared to the first (0–5 years after) (figure 1).
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Discussion |
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The risk factors of DP associated with LTSA in the present cohort varied significantly between men and women and over time, as well as in relation to age, income, previous sick leave, sick-leave diagnosis and employment status. Furthermore, an interaction between income and time was found to have an impact on the risk of DP. The role of the most common sick-leave diagnosis—musculoskeletal disorders—varied significantly between women and men.
Methodological considerations
Strengths of this study were the 10-year prospective and population-based cohort design, based on the total population aged 16–60 years (including students and unemployed persons) in an entire county. Another strength is that information on sick-leave diagnoses was included—due to confidentiality policies such data are seldom available. Moreover, data on DP, old-age retirement, and mortality were obtained from national registers, which represent highly reliable sources. The fairly equal and high employment rates for women and men that characterized the labour market in Sweden in the mid-1980s were an advantage when performing gender comparisons.23
A limitation is that we might have missed some of the spells of LTSA. However, it had previously been estimated that 13.9% of the spells were missing from the used database but that such omission had occurred in a random and similar way for short- and long-term spells.16 One can discuss the validity of the sick-leave diagnoses—in the used database the diagnoses were checked for validity in two ways and found acceptable.16,24 An additional limitation of the study is the lack of information on part-time work and cohabitation.
The LTSA diagnoses in relation to risk of DP
We found only two studies of predictors of DP in LTSA (>56 days) that included information on the sick-leave diagnoses.25 Both those investigations were conducted in Norway, and they used the International Classification of Diseases (ICD9) to classify the diagnoses. One of the studies used all 18 categories.13 The other study used the categories musculoskeletal, mental, pregnancy related (among women), cardiovascular and combined all other disorders into one category.4
Similar to the Norwegian studies, we found that men with a LTSA due to mental health disorders were at increased risk of DP compared to men with musculoskeletal disorders,4,13 and that was still the case at our 10-year follow-up (P < 0.001). Moreover, having a mental disorder represented a higher risk of long-lasting reduction of work capacity in men than in women, which agrees with previously reported results.26 One explanation for the higher HR of DP associated with mental disorders among men compared to women might be the higher risk of alcohol abuse among men in Sweden.11,27,28
In one of the Norwegian studies, not only mental, but also circulatory and respiratory diagnoses for LTSA led to a higher risk of DP compared to musculoskeletal diagnoses.13 Thus, LTSA due to a mental disorder might have a more severe outcome among men in Sweden than in Norway, or perhaps musculoskeletal cases have a better prognosis in Norway. The disparities between the Norwegian and Swedish results might also be explained by somewhat dissimilar study periods. Furthermore, there are differences between the two countries with regard to legislation on sickness absence; for example, a sick-leave spell can not last longer than 52 weeks in Norway, whereas there is no such limit in Sweden.29
Similar to the Norwegian studies, we found that for women the likelihood of receiving a DP was greatest for those with musculoskeletal sick-leave diagnoses.4,13 This gender difference might be related to gender dissimilarities in paid and unpaid work, types of occupation or in treatment in healthcare and rehabilitation.11,30–33 However, considering the women in the most detailed Norwegian study,13 diagnoses related to the nervous system led to a higher risk of DP compared to musculoskeletal diagnoses, indicating that Sweden and Norway differ in this respect. Differences in disease features (for instance disease severity) and/or job features (in terms of physical and/or mental demands) could form an additional explanation for the differential effect of mental or musculoskeletal disease among men and women.
As in the Norwegian studies,4,13 the risk of DP in our cohort was low in absences involving pregnancy or injury, as compared to musculoskeletal disorders.
Previous absence
In accordance with previous studies,1,4,20,32 we found that previous sick leave was a strong predictor of DP since LTSA and subsequent DP are likely to share the same risk factor pattern.
Socio-demographic predictors
Higher age, which is primarily an indicator of health status, was the strongest predictor of being granted a DP.1,4,11,32 Age adjustment is thus crucial when analysing other risk factors of disability pension. Notably, the distribution of main diagnoses in disability pension changes substantially with age.27 For example, mental diseases predominate in disability pensions granted in younger ages and musculoskeletal diseases in the older ones.27,34
In agreement with other investigators, we found that the risk of DP was reduced by higher socioeconomic status, measured as high income from work.4,35–37 However, the decrease in risk of DP differed significantly between men and women in the upper income level, being more pronounced among men. This is probably because of the large proportion of Swedish women that work part-time.23 Unfortunately, we did not have information about full-time or part-time work. We also observed a relationship between income and time in the effect on DP, as the protective effect of higher income observed 0–5 years after inclusion was reversed 6–10 years after inclusion. During the latter period, higher income (compared to low income) became a significant risk factor for DP. A possible explanation for this finding is that the disability pension is postponed more among persons with high incomes (because they have more possibilities to adapt to work demands).38
We noted that having younger children decreased the risk of DP among both women and men, whereas one of the Norwegian studies showed such a decrease only for women.13 Marriage is considered to protect against marginalization, but we found that that factor was not significantly related to risk of DP due to LTSA, which agrees with the results of the Norwegian study.13 Furthermore, not being born in Sweden, which might be associated with difficulties in the labour market led to a significantly elevated risk of DP in our cohort.39–41
Finally, lack of employment at baseline significantly increased the risk of DP among individuals on LTSA, and this effect was seen up to 5 years after inclusion. Perhaps this observation can be explained by an association between unemployment and poorer health, which could be due to either of the following aspects: a health-related selection process comprising an overrepresentation of disease preceding or following unemployment or the harmful effects of lack of vocational activity.42,43 Similar to our findings, previous studies have shown a positive association between unemployment and DP.7,44
Social policy implication
The results might be useful in defining risk groups for disability pension: the long-term sick leave spell of 8 weeks is already a very good predictor of risk. Sociodemographical and disease characteristics augment some predictive power.
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Conclusion |
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To our knowledge, this is the first prospective population-based study to examine the association between sick-leave diagnoses, socio-demographic characteristics and the risk of DP in people on long-term sick leave in Sweden. The results emphasize that, besides socio-demographic risk factors, the sick-leave diagnosis constitutes an important both medium and long-term predictor of DP among both men and women on LTSA. The reversal over time of the protective effect of higher income on the risk of disability pension merits further investigation.
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Acknowledgements |
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This study was supported by grants from the National Social Insurance Board, AFA Insurance, and the Swedish Council for Working Life and Social Research.
Conflicts of interest: None declared.
Key points
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